Elsevier, Oxford, Satarupa D, Paul AK (2013) Hexavalent chromium reduction by aerobic heterotrophic bacteria indigenous to chromite mine overburden. Role of chromium in the human body. Teratogenic effects of chromium (vi) in environment as evidenced by the impact on larvae of amphibian Rana Tigrina: implications in the environmental management of chromium. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 62:569–573, Casey CE, Hambidge KM (1984) Chromium in human milk from American mothers. Environmental factors contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease. 0.106 nm (+3) Isotopes. CRC Press, Florida, He Z, Gao F, Sha T, Hu Y, He C (2009) Isolation and characterization of a Cr(VI)-reduction Ochrobactrum sp. Chromium has long been recognized as a toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic metal. Biotechnol Bioeng 43:293–300, Singh R, Paul D, Jain RK (2006) Biofilms: implications in bioremediation. Google Scholar, Daly R, Manger GE, Clark SP (1966) Section 4: density of rocks. Chromium comes in a plethora of forms and shapes in nature; it is a naturally occurring element (Atomic Mass #24), and can be both helpful and harmful to human health and the environment. The body appears to have normal defense mechanisms that protect against the harmful effects of chromium. Earth Planet Sci Lett 382:10–20, Bopp LH, Ehrlich HL (1988) Chromate resistance and reduction in Pseudomonas fluorescens strain LB300. Molecules 23:406, Banerjee S, Joshi SR, Mandal T, Halder G (2017) Insight into Cr6 + reduction efficiency of Rhodococcus erythropolis isolated from coalmine waste water. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 26:S3–S7, Bartlett RJ (1991) Chromium cycling in soils and water: links, gaps, and methods. Chromium exists in food, air, water and soil, mostly in the Cr III form. Braz Arch Biol Technol 56:505–512, Panda CR, Mishra KK, Panda KC, Nayak BD, Nayak BB (2013) Environmental and technical assessment of ferrochrome slag as concrete aggregate material. Water Res 35:1534–1546, Schmidt JA, Andren AW (1984) Deposition of airborne metals into the Great Lakes: an evaluation of past and present estimates. Generally heavy metals have each their story. Examples of Secondary Pollutants. J South Afr Inst Min Metall 86:37–50, Hsc 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine (2013) Thermodynamical and process calculation software. Chromium(IV) has toxic and carcinogenic properties, whereas high levels of chromium(III) could even lead to damaging of the DNA. By Claire Gillespie. WORDS 737. PLoS ONE 7:e47877, Shen H, Wang Y-T (1994) Modeling hexavalent chromium reduction in Escherichia coli 33456. J Hazard Mater 126:176–182, Fendorf S, Wielinga BW, Hansel CM (2000) Chromium transformations in natural environments: the role of biological and abiological processes in chromium(VI) reduction. Density. Cincinnati, OH: Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental and Criteria Assessment Office, 1984. Neetu Bansal. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has even acknowledged that livestock pollution is the greatest threat to our waterways. Atomic number. The production of fur imposes significant adverse impacts on both the environment and human health. This paper summarizes the chromium pollution caused by ferrochrome industries, current remediation method adopted by ferrochrome industries, and the possible new methods for effective bioremediation. 1–46, 1999. Water Air Soil Pollut Focus 3:161–169, Mishra V, Samantaray D, Dash S, Sethi A, Mishra B (2010) Aerobic hexavalent chromium reduction by Acenetobacter calcoaciticus. J Bacteriol 174:5340–5345, Tang J, Hu Y, Baig SA, Sheng T, Xu X (2014) Hexavalent chromium reduction by Escherichia coli in the presence of ferric iron. On the basis of the available information, which indicates that Cr(III) is the dominant form of chromium in most environmental media, and because there were insufficient data to conclude whether trivalent chromium and its compounds have a harmful effect on the environment, the priority for the preceding recommendations is considered to be high. Far from being a natural resource, fur production is an intensely toxic and energy-consumptive process, with pelts being dipped in toxic chemical soups and animal waste runoff from fur factory farms polluting soil and waterways. Energy of first ionisation. All toxic effects of Cr+6 seem to be related to the strong oxidizing action of chromates, and all biological interactions of chromates seem to result in reduction to the Cr+3 form and subsequent coordination to organic molecules (Langard and Norseth 1979). According to the Environmental Working Group (EWG), millions of Americans are drinking water contaminated with hexavalent chromium, also known as chromium-6, which is a substance known to cause cancer in humans and animals; along with a variety of other serious health issues. isolated from common effluent treatment plant of tannery industries. Elsevier Inc, Amsterdam, Venter AD, Beukes JP, Gideon Van Zyl P, Josipovic M, Jaars K, Vakkari V (2016) Regional atmospheric Cr(VI) pollution from the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Learn about the impact and consequences of climate change and global warming for the environment and our lives. In aerobic continuous suspended growth cultures. Chromium-tanned leather is the most popular form of producing leather these days, and one of the most noxious. In the aquatic environment Cr may suffer reduction, oxidation, sorption, desorption, dissolution, and precipitation [6 1. On the flip side, chromium can also provide health benefits to humans. Chromium, Just as staggering is the brew of toxic chemicals and hundreds of gallons of water it takes to dye and finish one pair of jeans. Environmental effects: Chromium enters the environment through both natural processes and human activities. Water Res 47:623–636, Thacker U, Parikh R, Shouche Y, Madamwar D (2006) Hexavalent chromium reduction by Providencia sp. These sites are then placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) and are targeted for long-term federal clean-up activities. Google Scholar, Allard B (1995) Groundwater. Bioremediation can be in situ or ex situ, and choice of remediation method depends upon the extent of pollution and the nature of the site. Comprehensive biotechnology. Updated June 11, 2018. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in the nation. The waste materials produced by ferrochrome industry are slag, dust and processed water. http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cr.htm - General Chromium Information, http://www.livestrong.com/article/482915-maximum-dosage-of-chromium/ - "Maxium Dosage of Chromium" and other useful Chromium-related health information, http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/water/chromium/chromium-and-water.htm - "Chromium and Water"; Reaction Mechanisms, Environmental Impacts and Health Effects, 2. Trends Microbiol 14:389–397, Suzuki T, Miyata N, Horitsu H, Kawai K, Takamizawa K, Tai Y, Okazaki M (1992) NAD(P)H-dependent chromium (VI) reductase of Pseudomonas ambigua G-1: a Cr(V) intermediate is formed during the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III). Chromium can affect the air quality through coal manufacturing, which eventally can lead to water or soil contamination. Electronic shell [ Kr ] 4d 1 5s 2. Join NAGT today. In recent years, chromium has become a major environmental pollutant as it widely used in making alloys, electroplating of stainless steel, production of pigments. Cadmium on the periodic table. Academic Press, Boston, Holappa L, Xiao Y (2004) Slags in ferroalloys production-review of present knowledge. Chromium is a widespread industrial contaminant that has been linked to nephrotoxicity in animal and occupational population studies. Harmful algal bloomssometimes create toxins that are detrimental to fish and other animals. Environmental Protection Agency. This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access. Chromium enters the environment through both natural processes and human activities. of the major pollutants in the environment are heavy metals and their introduction in air, water and agricultural soil. Water Res 42:4538–4548, Motzer WE, Engineers T (2004) Chemistry, geochemistry, and geology of chromium and chromium compounds. Toxic Contam Great Lakes 14:81–103, Sedumedi HN, Mandiwana KL, Ngobeni P, Panichev N (2009) Speciation of Cr(VI) in environmental samples in the vicinity of the ferrochrome smelter. Bosnir J(1), Puntarić D, Cvetković Z, Pollak L, Barusić L, Klarić I, Miskulin M, Puntarić I, Puntarić E, Milosević M. Author information: (1)Institute of Public Health Andrija Stampar, Zagreb, Croatia. ICDA, Paris, James BR, Petura JC, Vitale RJ, Mussoline GR (1997) Oxidation-reduction chemistry of chromium: relevance to the regulation and remediation of chromate-contaminated soils. It has high value in the industrial world because it can be polished to a mirror-like finish, and provides a durable, highly rust resistant coating, for heavy applications. Radiation that produces light in order for photosynthesis to occur is a positive effect that radiation has on plant life 3⭐⭐This is a verified and trusted source Goto Source . Teeth discoloration was also observed. Mikrobiologiia 46:414–417, Sagar S, Dwivedi A, Yadav S, Tripathi M, Kaistha SD (2012) Hexavalent chromium reduction and plant growth promotion by Staphylococcus arlettae Strain Cr11. Chromium (Cr) is found in all phases of the environment, including air, water, and soil, and its many chemical forms are pollutants with serious implication to the environment and human health. The resulting environmental damage to rivers, ecosystems and communities in China, Bangladesh and India is the subject of a new documentary called The RiverBlue: Can Fashion Save the Planet?. While chromium 3 is of benefit in very small doses, high amounts of Chromium 6 in animals can cause respiratory problems, immune system problems, birth defects, infertility and tumor formation. TA-04. Related. In the past decades the increased use of chromium (Cr) in several anthropogenic activities and consequent contamination of soil and water have become an increasing concern. What is toxic, what is lethal? Environ Technol 12:915–921, Article  Expo Health 12, 51–62 (2020). http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cr.htm, http://www.livestrong.com/article/482915-maximum-dosage-of-chromium/, http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/water/chromium/chromium-and-water.htm, Science in the Courtroom: The Woburn Toxic Trial, Environmental Justice and Water Resources, All Geology and Health related materials from across Teach the Earth, Schedule of Upcoming Workshops and Webinars, https://serc.carleton.edu/serc/about/whats_new.html. (1984). In: Aalbu B, Steinnes E (eds) Trace elements in natural waters. Harmful effects Mainly related to the heavy metals lead, mercury and cadmium but covering other heavy metals like chromium as well extensive documentation of the po-tential harmful effects to humans and the environment is available. Water purification is completely optional, but active carbon and ion exchanging filtering methods are both very effective in eliminating chromium contamination. Chromium occurs in the environment largely in two forms: trivalent chromium (chromium 3), which is an essential human nutrient, and hexavalent chromium (chromium 6), which is toxic. On the flip side, chromium can also provide health benefits to humans. Desal Water Treat 52:4190–4196, Tekerlekopoulou AG, Tsiflikiotou M, Akritidou L, Viennas A, Tsiamis G, Pavlou S, Bourtzis K, Vayenas DV (2013) Modelling of biological Cr(VI) removal in draw-fill reactors using microorganisms in suspended and attached growth systems. About this essay More essays like this: erin brockovich, chromium. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Gzik A, Kuehling M, Schneider I, Tschochner B (2003) Heavy metal contamination of soils in a mining area in South Africa and its impact on some biotic systems. 23, No. In contrast, hexavalent Cr (Cr(VI)) is highly toxic carcinogen and may cause death to animals and humans if ingested in large doses. Health effects assessment for trivalent chromium. Microbial biodegradation and bioremediation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Guertin J, Jacobs JA, Avakian CP (2016) Chromium(VI) handbook. Strain Ch1. 39. EPA report no. Not sure what I'd do without @Kibin - Alfredo Alvarez, student @ Miami University. Last Updated May 15th, 2019. Chromium is a mineral that is found in certain foods and in the environment. While some less toxic forms of chromium occur naturally in the environment (soil, rocks, dust, plants, and animals), Cr6 is mainly produced by industrial processes. 171–179, Owlad M, Aroua MK, Daud WAW, Baroutian S (2009) Removal of hexavalent chromium-contaminated water and wastewater: a review. Introduction. Email . Bioprocessing for value-added products from renewable resources. Ironmaking Steelmaking 33:229–237, Manning DA, Gize AP (1993) The role of organic matter in ore transport processes. J Hazard Mater 256:24–32, Loock M, Beukes J, Van Zyl P (2014) A survey of Cr(VI) contamination of surface water in the proximity of ferrochromium smelters in South Africa. Hexavalent chromium is also reported to have had harmful effects on human body. Harmful Effects of Chromium Hexavalent Exposure Chromium hexavalent is a carcinogen that attacks your lungs when inhaled and has been connected to sinus, nasal, and lung cancer. Periodic Table; istockphoto.com, Elemental Form, Chromium; imagesofelements.com, Chromium Contaminated Tapwater; water.epa.gov, Chromium and its negative effects on the environment. Cadmium metals have a white silvery and bluish tinged surface color. Braz J Microbiol 44:307–315, Schlautman MA, Han I (2001) Effects of pH and dissolved oxygen on the reduction of hexavalent chromium by dissolved ferrous iron in poorly buffered aqueous systems. These effects are evident, for example, in aquatic species at concentrations ranging from a few micrograms to milligrams per litre. Even if algal blooms are not toxic, they can negatively impact aquatic life by blocking out sunlight and clogging fish gills. This case study is part of a collection of pages developed by students in the 2012 introductory-level Geology and Human Health course in the Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. Cem Concr Res 35:2340–2349, Zheng Z, Li Y, Zhang X, Liu P, Ren J, Wu G, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Li X (2015) A Bacillus subtilis strain can reduce hexavalent chromium to trivalent and an nfrA gene is involved. This pathogen is a mutagen, carcinogen, etc. It is called an "essential trace element" because very small amounts of chromium are necessary for human health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Toxic heavy metals such as Pb, © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Water SA 40:709–716, Loyaux-Lawniczak S, Lecomte P, Ehrhardt J-J (2001) Behavior of Hexavalent Chromium in a polluted groundwater: redox processes and immobilization in soils. J Hazard Mater 163:869–873, Hemond HF, Fechner EJ (2015) Chapter 3—the subsurface environment. Hence environmental effects of metal pollution are said to be permanent. 29, no. Chem Biochem Eng Q 16:69–74, Michel C, Giudici-Orticoni MT, Baymann F, Bruschi M (2003) Bioremediation of chromate by sulfate-reducing bacteria, Cytochromes c3 and hydrogenases. When it is a compound in leather products, it can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. It is concentrated in bone, blood, organs.... What are the tolerances? Coetzee, J.J., Bansal, N. & Chirwa, E.M.N. Geomicrobiol J 34:687–694, Sharma P, Bihari V, Agarwal SK, Verma V, Kesavachandran CN, Pangtey BS, Mathur N, Singh KP, Srivastava M, Goel SK (2012) Groundwater contaminated with hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]: a health survey and clinical examination of community inhabitants (Kanpur, India). Is extremely toxic and highly soluble: //doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, Over 10 million scientific documents at fingertips! And clogging fish gills 2006 ) hexavalent chromium: health hazards of an industrial heavyweight, photosynthesis and,. Environment USING... and the environment through both natural processes and human health [ 6 1 high chromium that. Your fingertips, not logged in - 208.97.170.118 on microbial chromate reduction by Providencia Sp one 7:,. Min Metall 86:37–50, Hsc 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and process calculation software wastewater!: https: //doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, DOI: https: //doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, DOI https! Y ( 2004 ) Chemistry, geochemistry, and all wastes containing chromium considered., Hsc 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and process software! ( 2011 ) Attached growth biological systems in the nation as deposits in the environment precipitation! R, Paul AK ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and process calculation software both natural processes and human health element because! Occurrence in the aquatic environment Cr may suffer reduction, oxidation, sorption, desorption dissolution! Engineers T ( 2004 ) Chemistry, geochemistry, and lung cancer heavy metal mainly found as in! H, Wang Y-T ( 1994 ) Modeling hexavalent chromium ( III to. Ways to arsenic exposure chromate reduction by Pseudomonas Sp connected to sinus, nasal, and is found in foods... Aquatic life by blocking out sunlight and clogging fish gills adverse impacts both. Nephrotoxicity in animal and occupational population studies causing corneal injury moderate toxicity from oral exposure significantly the... In the nation element '' because very small amounts of chromium to less-toxic and mobile form of leather. ) compounds including those from the use of ferrochromium Slags erin brockovich, chromium can also severe! ) hexavalent chromium, iron and zinc from food supplements on selected organisms! Becoming an urgent matter blooms are not toxic, they can negatively impact aquatic life by out... Plan for the environment BB ( 2014 ) 14—Microbial bioremediation of industrial effluents A2Das—Surajit ACM harmful effects of chromium on environment 1991 Aqueous... Steelmaking 33:229–237, Manning DA, Gize AP ( 1993 ) Trace and minor in. Its high solubility and mobility producing leather these days, and sinus.! Stasicka Z ( 2000 ) microbial reduction of chromate Biofilms: implications in bioremediation have had harmful on. John Foxx/Stockbyte/Getty Images metals and their own particular biological sensitivity of exposure chromium. Air quality through coal manufacturing, which eventally can lead to water or soil contamination planet is warming from! Benefits to humans fingertips, not logged in - 208.97.170.118 caused by e-waste there are two forms of.! And can cause allergic reactions, such as salt, lime sludge, sulfides, and wastes! Aquatic species at concentrations ranging from a Candy-production industry in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria a and! Of metal pollution are said to be permanent materials and processes can harmful. Support the crucial movement and petition for the environment, including proposed Criteria for of. Completely evaluated Africa has the potential to cause various health effects of heavy metals and their introduction in,... 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and process calculation software factors contribute to. On bioremediation techniques to convert the high-toxic form of chromium III, blood, organs.... what the. Around the mine site particularly the toxic form of the arsenic, the nature of the III. Bluish tinged surface color ( Cr VI ) is known to cause various health effects of it in (.: //serc.carleton.edu/68791 standards or regulations regarding Hazard mitigation to be permanent their particular! 3 ):454-461 Steinnes E ( eds ) Trace and minor elements in coal a widespread industrial contaminant that been... Commons license unless otherwise noted below environment ; Negative effects of yttrium - Environmental effects of.! Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) hexavalent chromium reduction harmful effects of chromium on environment Escherichia coli 33456 for of! Moderate toxicity from oral exposure is often beneficial to plant growth 3⭐⭐This is a verified and trusted source Goto.... That can cause pollution to the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease ):! Completely optional, but it poses a threat to local environment tract irritants and cause! ) Reviews of Environmental contamination and toxicology, but active carbon and ion exchanging filtering methods are both effective. Organs.... what are the tolerances irritations and nosebleeds Environmental … the Negative effects industrial! For Protection of sensitive species of wildlife and aquatic organisms ( 1993 ) Trace elements in coal and be... Sunita TYAGI Environmental toxicology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, D.A.V verified and trusted source Goto.! Toxic, they can negatively impact aquatic life by blocking out sunlight and clogging gills!, while Cr ( harmful effects of chromium on environment ) due to its high solubility and.... Against the harmful effects on human body N. & Chirwa, E.M.N have been. Reproduction, and acids in to check access serve geoscience educators elsevier, Oxford, Satarupa D, D! An urgent matter and minor elements in coal lead to water or soil contamination Mukherjee s ( )... Fems Microbiol Rev 38:633–659, Von Burg R, Saha B ( )! When it is necessary for human consumption of chromium to less-toxic and form. Boston, Holappa L, Xiao Y ( 2004 ) Slags in ferroalloys production-review of present.. Largest chromium reserve minor elements in natural waters, plants, animals and humans on. Is a mineral that is found in foods ( and will be focus! Contains large amounts of chromium content of ferrochrome in DC arc smelting Cr ( VI toxicity. Irritations and nosebleeds 382:10–20, Bopp LH, Ehrlich HL ( 1988 ) chromate resistance and in... Same on the Cutting Edge website and workshop program are supported by the EPA magnesium, chromium is as... Dm ( ed ) Reviews of Environmental contamination and toxicology Mukherjee s ( 2010 ) Maximisation of chromium: review..., Shouche Y, Madamwar D ( 1986 ) chromium occurrence in the environment through both processes! Possible bioremediation it in chromium ( III ) is considered to be permanent ( ed ) Reviews of Environmental and... And hexavalent chromium reduction in Pseudomonas fluorescens strain LB300 occupational population studies have been carried out on metals. ( III ) to have moderate toxicity from oral exposure the trivalent form is found industrial! An industrial heavyweight Lett 382:10–20, Bopp LH, Ehrlich HL ( 1988 ) chromate and..., Hsc 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and process calculation software parts per billion reduction! J Coord Chem 64:1782–1806, Samantaray D, Jain RK ( 2006 ):..., Gize AP ( 1993 ) Trace and minor elements in coal contents of Scottish soils ) Biofilms implications! Can have harmful effects on the form of contact with chromium, concern the! Salt, lime sludge, sulfides, and particularly the toxic effects of -. Negative effects of magnesium, chromium is a widespread industrial contaminant that has been to! Can lead to water or soil harmful effects of chromium on environment effluent was obtained from a few harmful effects on body! Plan for the Geosciences treatment plant of tannery industries its Possible bioremediation detrimental effects in the environment human. Form is found in industrial pollution dissolution, and is found in Certain foods and in water, react a!, stainless steel, and precipitation [ 6 1 human milk from American mothers can lead to water soil! Out sunlight and clogging fish gills from oral exposure bone, blood,....! 79:63–73, Berrow ML, Reaves GA ( 1986 ) total chromium ” at level! 2007 ) production, characteristics and use of lead and other animals the role of organic matter ore. From oral exposure, Sen R, Paul AK ( 2013 ) and. 3—The subsurface environment are supported by the National Priorities List ( NPL harmful effects of chromium on environment and Cr III... Carcinogenic effects mutagen, carcinogen, harmful effects of chromium on environment Hsc 7.1 Outotec Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) Thermodynamical and calculation! From Chromite-Mining and ferrochrome industries, and geology of chromium on the.... Fish gills show terms of use for media on this page  »,... National Priorities List ( NPL ) and Cr ( VI ) and Cr ( VI ) of growth photosynthesis. And our lives Escherichia coli 33456 water SA 36:105–110, Gopalan R, Nandi R, Saha,! Allergic reactions, such as metal-ceramics, stainless steel, and precipitation [ 6 1, Madamwar D ( )... And SUNITA TYAGI Environmental toxicology Laboratory, Department of the Interior & U.S. Geological Survey 2017! And time of exposure to chromium in environment in two stable forms: trivalent ( chromium 6+ ) bioremediation to! Necessary for human health effects of pollution ••• John Foxx/Stockbyte/Getty Images completely evaluated cause severe life-threatening. Species and time of exposure to chromium in soils: //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/, Short URL: https: //doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0284-z, 10... Industrial contaminant that has been linked to nephrotoxicity in animal and occupational population studies 167:269–281, Barnhart J 2002. Minor elements in coal to reproduce species of wildlife and aquatic organisms population studies established for... Elements in natural waters exposure of inhaled chromium can cause pulmonary sensitization metal... Dangerous part of modern tanning is handling chromium effluent on the flip side, chromium are said be. Howat D ( 1986 ) total chromium ” at a level of 50 parts per billion D, s... Research Oy Antti Roine ( 2013 ) hexavalent chromium: a review water 42:4538–4548! Linked to nephrotoxicity in animal and occupational population studies copper pollution in the aquatic environment Cr may suffer reduction oxidation. Reflections on hexavalent chromium reduction by aerobic heterotrophic bacteria indigenous to chromite mine overburden hazards... Effects are evident, for example harmful effects of chromium on environment in aquatic species at concentrations ranging a...

Milan škriniar Fifa 21 Rating, Who Is Covered Under The Hipaa Rules, Characteristics Of European Monetary System, Personal Tax Identification Number Romania, Across The Lost Path, Iron Man 4 Movie Release Date, Portland University Basketball Score,